Aragon was the portion of the realm which passed to Ramiro I of Aragon, an illegitimate son of Sancho III. The Christian rulers to the north did not return the favor. Because it lasted so long, many combatants were involved in the Reconquista. . which marked the end of the Spanish Reconquista (Reconquista . 720. Over the following decades, Spanish and Portuguese discoveries in Central and South America astounded . [95] The conquest of Ceuta in 1415 marked the beginning of Portuguese expansion in Africa. The rulers of Asturias were the first to try to wrest Spain from the Moors. [citation needed], Meanwhile, Navarre lost all importance under King Sancho IV, for he lost Rioja to Sancho II of Castile, and nearly became the vassal of Aragon. [73] The War of the Granada succession (14821492) took place after the deposition of emir Abu'l-Hasan Ali of Granada by his son Muhammad XII of Granada; the deposed emir's brother Muhammad XIII of Granada also joined the fight. [2] Its culmination came in 1492 with the fall of the Nasrid kingdom of Granada to the united Spanish Crown of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile. Casariego, J.E. [68] Although Christian rulers Fernn Gonzlez of Castile and Ramiro II of Len had cooperated to defeat the Muslims at the Battle of Simancas (939), Fernn attacked Ramiro soon after and the LeoneseCastilian war that followed lasted until Ramiro's victory in 944. Reconquista is the Spanish and Portuguese word for Reconquest. The result was many (up to 34) small kingdoms, each centered upon its capital. [57], During the reign of King Alfonso II (791842), the kingdom was firmly established, and a series of Muslim raids caused the transfer of the Asturian capital to Oviedo. They are still up, and though he has backtracked a bit since, he hasn't taken it down. In 1493, an explorer in Spanish service named Christopher Columbus changed the course of world history when he unexpectedly discovered two entirely new continents during an expedition to reach Asia by sailing West from Europe. Realize the importance of the positions held by Kings, Lords, Ladies and Knights and discover the everyday lifestyles of the peasants and serfs. Because the Umayyad rulers based in Crdoba were unable to extend their power over the Pyrenees, they decided to consolidate their power within the Iberian peninsula. [citation needed], Jim Bradbury (2004) noted that the Christian belligerents in the Reconquista were not all equally motivated by religion, and that a distinction should be made between 'secular rulers' on the one hand, and on the other hand Christian military orders which came from elsewhere (including the three main orders of Knights Templar, Knights Hospitaller and Teutonic Knights), or were established inside Iberia (such as those of Santiago, Alcntara and Calatrava). By the 11th century the pope supported some of the campaigns against the Moors. Almanzor waged several campaigns attacking and sacking Burgos, Leon, Pamplona, Barcelona, and Santiago de Compostela before his death in 1002. [citation needed], A 2016 study found that the "rate of Reconquest"how rapidly the Christian frontier was expandedhas persistent effects on the Spanish economy to this day. The first fuero was given by count Fernn Gonzlez to the inhabitants of Castrojeriz in the 940's. In the 21st century, the concept has become important to far-right European political parties regarded as anti-immigrant and Islamophobicespecially with the Spanish Vox party and the French Reconqute party. Presuras also appear in Catalonia, when the count of Barcelona ordered the Bishop of Urgell and the count of Gerona to repopulate the plains of Vic. [citation needed], The conquest of Leon did not include Galicia which was left to temporary independence after the withdrawal of the Leonese king. Later on, in the 12th century, Aragon also employed the system; for example, the fuero of Teruel, which was one of the last fueros, in the early 13th century. Both the Jews and Muslims were defined by the medieval Catholic Church as "the other" and thus as "bad" and a threat. Spain formally revoked the Alhambra decree in 1968, and in the early 2000s both Spain and Portugal granted Sephardic Jews the right to claim citizenship of the countries that expelled their. Slide 1Crusades 14.1 Slide 2 How the Crusades got started: In 1093, the Byzantine Emperor _____ sent an appeal to Robert, Count of Flanders asking for Once he had secured the Borders, King Alfonso conquered the powerful Taifa kingdom of Toledo in 1085. During his reign, the bones of St. James the Great were declared to have been found in Galicia, at Santiago de Compostela. 1936-39 - Spanish Civil War: A coup by right-wing military leaders captures only part of the country, leading to three years of bitter civil war. [citation needed], Royal knights in the early stages of the Reconquista were equipped with mail hauberk, kite shield, a long sword (designed to fight from the horse), javelins, spears and an axe. [citation needed], Although relatively weak until the early 11th century, Pamplona took a more active role after the accession of Sancho the Great (10041035). Social Studies Grade 6 in E d g e n u i t y Watt, W. Montgomery: The Influence of Islam on Medieval Europe. In the 12th and 13th centuries, soldiers typically carried a sword, a lance, a javelin, and either bow and arrows or crossbow and darts/bolts. The dominant ruling family during this time was that of the Hapsburgs, including the powerful Charles V, who became Holy Roman Emperor after the death of Ferdinand and Isabella in 1516, and was succeeded by his equally influential son Philip II in 1556. On the way home the rearguard of the army was ambushed and destroyed by Basque forces at the Battle of Roncevaux Pass. It was formed when Sancho III of Navarre decided to divide his large realm among all his sons. [106], The annual commemoration of the surrender of Sultan Boabdil in Granada on 2 January acquired a markedly nationalistic undertone during the early years of the Francoist regime and, since the death of the dictator Francisco Franco in 1975, it has served as glue for extreme right groups by facilitating their open-air physical gatherings and providing them with an occasion which they can use to explicitly state their political demands. In the end, Abd al-Aziz ibn Musa's cousin, Ayyub ibn Habib al-Lakhmi became the wali (governor) of Al-Andalus. In al-Andalus -- the Arabic name for Muslim-controlled Iberia -- Christians and Jews had significant religious freedom. [citation needed] By the end of the year Sancho VII had dropped out of the war under Papal pressure. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. "[88] The term "reconquista" in this sense first appeared in the 19th century, and only entered the dictionary of the Royal Spanish Academy in 1936, with the rise of Francisco Franco. Around 722, a Muslim military expedition was sent into the north in late summer to suppress a rebellion led by Pelagius of Asturias (Pelayo in Spanish, Pelayu in Asturian). pp. Abd-ar-Rahman's grandson later became a puppet in the hands of the great Vizier Almanzor (al-Mansur, "the victorious"). Scholars have described the "Reconquista" as "a biased and simplified concept." The Middle Ages was such an exciting time in history. There are some, however, who believe that the horrors of the Inquisition have been exaggerated, and that just one per cent of the 125,000 people believed to have been tried were executed. [citation needed], Early in his reign, James attempted to reunite the Aragonese and Navarrese crowns through a treaty with the childless Sancho VII of Navarre. The Spanish Civil War, 1936-39. During the Renaissance, the Spanish empire also extended throughout Western Europe. "[87] Among other arguments, one of those advanced by scholars is that "no military campaign lasts eight centuries. fevereiro 17, 2023; Posted by nene leakes father alan; 17 . According to the director of the movie, the film depicts living through the problems faced by Pakistan. tower cafe sacramento; galley pirate blox fruits. consider the Reconquista proof that the process of Christian state-building in Iberia was frequently defined by the reclamation of lands that had been lost to the Moors in generations past. A Hundred Years of Strife in Spain, 1833-1236. '[76], On the other hand, Christian armies sometimes forged temporary alliances with Islamic emirs, and Christian mercenaries were quite willing to fight for Arab and Berber rulers if the price was right. However, this brief period of independence meant that Galicia remained a kingdom and fief of Leon, which is the reason it is part of Spain and not Portugal. This series of battles is an integral part of the religious influence that represents Spain today. [48], Ten years after halting their advance north, Odo of Aquitaine married his daughter to Uthman ibn Naissa, a rebel Berber and lord of Cerdanya (perhaps all of contemporary Catalonia as well), in an attempt to secure his southern borders to fend off Charles Martel's attacks on the north. While Juan Ponce de Len no doubt celebrated this nationalist victory, he was also aware that his country no longer needed his military services. [14] Mercenaries were an important factor, as many kings did not have enough soldiers available. Third edition. The Reconquista in Spain had the ultimate effect of driving Muslims out of the Iberian Peninsula, and contributed to the unification of a single Spanish kingdom. Edward A. Ryan The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica Catalonia was itself formed from a number of small counties, including Pallars, Girona, and Urgell; it was called the Marca Hispanica by the late 8th century. [38] The Berbers were indigenous inhabitants of North Africa who had only recently converted to Islam; they provided most of the soldiery of the invading Islamic armies but sensed Arab discrimination against them. Frank Snowden. Sujetos malvados en el periodismo y la literatura espaola del siglo XXI. The Moors were expelled from the country for good. [citation needed], The northern principalities and kingdoms survived in their mountainous strongholds (see above). this is what happened to muslims and jews after the fall. Asturian laws promoted this system, for instance granting a peasant all the land he was able to work and defend as his own property. Shields were often round or kidney-shaped, except for the kite-shaped designs used by the royal knights. On this Wikipedia the language links are at the top of the page across from the article title. [65], In 1497 Spanish forces took Melilla, west of Oran, and the island of Djerba, south of Tunis, and went on to more important gains, with the bloody seizure of Oran in 1509, and the capture of Bougie and Tripoli in 1510. [18] Propaganda accounts of Muslim-Christian hostility came into being to support that idea, most notably the Chanson de Roland, an 11th-century French chanson de geste that offers a fictionalized retelling of the Battle of Roncevaux Pass (778) dealing with the Iberian Saracens (Moors), and centuries later introduced in the French school system with a view to instilling moral and national values in the population following the 1870 defeat of the French in the Franco-Prussian War, regardless of the actual events. But, let's start . . [72] A similar scenario occurred in 11471157, when the Almoravid dynasty fell, a Second Taifas period happened, and the Muslim-controlled cities of al-Andalus were conquered by the new Almohad Caliphate. [45] During the first decades, Asturian control over part of the kingdom was weak, and for this reason it had to be continually strengthened through matrimonial alliances and war with other peoples from the north of the Iberian Peninsula. [41], A drastic increase of taxes by the emir Anbasa ibn Suhaym Al-Kalbi provoked several rebellions in Al-Andalus, which a series of succeeding weak emirs were unable to suppress. [56], Pelagius' kingdom initially was little more than a gathering point for the existing guerrilla forces. Near the city of Zaragoza Charlemagne received the homage of Sulayman al-Arabi. In 781, his three-year-old son Louis was crowned king of Aquitaine, under the supervision of Charlemagne's trustee William of Gellone, and was nominally in charge of the incipient Spanish March. Many governors of large cities distant from the capital, Crdoba, had planned to establish their independence. What he was doing it for, was to prevent Germany and Western Europe, in case the winter came quickly, from opening up the pipeline," Hersh said. [50], Charlemagne, seeing an opportunity, agreed upon an expedition and crossed the Pyrenees in 778. Figure 1. [citation needed] many of Roderic's troops deserted, leading to defeat. Infantry only went to war if needed, which was not frequent. The repopulation of the Douro Basin took place in two distinct phases. [78], Making things more complex were the many former Muslims and Jews known as Moriscos, Marranos, and Conversos, who shared ancestors in common with many Christians, especially among the aristocracy, causing much concern over loyalty and attempts by the aristocracy to hide their non-Christian ancestry. [citation needed], Despite numerous battles, neither the Umayyads nor the Asturians had sufficient forces to secure control over these northern territories. In 1148 they arrived in Spain and shored up the Muslim defenses, retaking towns lost to the Christians. The part that doomed him was his comments on a Rasmussen poll that found 46 percent of black voters either disagreed with or had . Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). 2 What happened on these dates? During the same period, James I of Aragon completed Aragons part in the Reconquest. James I of Aragon, also known as James the Conqueror, expanded his territories to the north, south and east. Spain and the level of interaction between them and Christians, as well as the willingness of these groups to assimilate into the society of the Catholic majority. but once it was the door to one of he biggest invasions happened in the History of Spain. This article highlights some of the important legacies of Muslim Granada. These armies reflected the need for society to be on constant alert during the first chapters of the Reconquista. [108] The far right has also waged a culture war by claiming dates in the history of the Reconquista, such as the aforementioned 2 January or 2 February, regional festivities for the related autonomous communities (Andalusia and Murcia).[107]. Their only defeat came at Valencia in 1094, due to the actions of El Cid. [citation needed] Taifas reemerged when the Almoravid dynasty collapsed in the 1140s, and again when the Almohad Caliphate declined in the 1220s. The kingdoms of Aragon and Navarre were several times united in personal union until the death of Alfonso the Battler in 1135. [citation needed], After a brief period of disintegration (the second Taifa period), the Almohads, the rising power in North Africa, took over most of Al-Andalus. His armies ravaged the north, even sacking the church of Santiago de Compostela. Richard on February 26, 2023 at 9:14 am said: The Fed fights inflation and tanks the economy. External view of the Alhambra complex in Granada ( Source) Figure 2. [90], In 1558, the armies of King Henry II of France managed to conquer the city of Calais, which had been under English rule for centuries. In fact, previous documents which date from the 10th and 11th centuries are mute on any idea of "reconquest". 12 Let's learn about . They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors. He took all the military, religious, and political power and reorganised the army and the bureaucracy. After the surrender of Granada in January 1492, the entire Iberian peninsula was controlled by Christian rulers. In 792 Hisham proclaimed a jihad, advancing in 793 against the Kingdom of Asturias and Carolingian Septimania (Gothia). . [96] Some 15th-century political writers promoted the idea of a "Gothic Monarchy", an heir to Rome, that included territory across the Strait. The palace of Ibn 'Abbd has long been the subject of study by numerous specialists, amongst whom its possible location has been considered to be the current site of the Reales Alczares of Seville (Royal Palace and Fortress of Seville). After this defeat, Moorish attacks abated until Almanzor began his campaigns. [60] Alfonso successfully reincorporated the Principality of Tarragona into their realm, expelling the Norman d'Aguil family. "Reconquista" was used again under Francisco Franco's regime. Life for Muslims under . "[68] Together the Kings of Portugal, Castile, and Aragon invaded Leon. Ruiz De La Pea. Described as the "Leader of the New Reconquista," the dictator vowed to rid the country not of Muslims but of atheists, masons, and communists. . [85][86] The concept has served the idea "that Spain is a nation shaped against Islam," contributing to "a largely biased and distorted vision of the Iberian medieval past, aimed at delegitimizing the Islamic presence (al-Andalus) and therefore at legitimizing the Christian conquest of the Muslim territory. [48], Meanwhile, the takeover of the southern fringes of Al-Andalus by Abd ar-Rahman I in 756 was opposed by Yusuf ibn Abd al-Rahman, autonomous governor (wli) or king (malik) of al-Andalus. [81], The many advances and retreats created several social types:[citation needed], Since the 19th century, traditional Western and especially Iberian historiography has stressed the existence of the Reconquista,[83] a continual phenomenon by which the Christian Iberian kingdoms opposed and conquered the Muslim kingdoms, understood as a common enemy who had militarily seized territory from native Iberian Christians. In an atmosphere of constant conflict, warfare and daily life were strongly intertwined during this period. The taifas were small kingdoms, established by the city governors. Similarly, the Balkans (Greece, Bulgaria, Albania) were part of the Ottoman Empire alongside many Arab nations, and there are Greek Orthodox Christians in some Arab countries. Fueros had an immense importance for those living under them, who were prepared to go to war to defend their rights under the charter. [37], After the establishment of a local Emirate, Caliph Al-Walid I, ruler of the Umayyad Caliphate, removed many of the successful Muslim commanders. Use the interactive map and timeline to learn where and when something happened. After suffering a crushing defeat at the Battle of Alarcos (July 18, 1195) at the hands of the Almohad caliph Ab Ysuf Yaqb al-Manr, Alfonso VIII appealed to other Christian leaders, and in 1212 he won the support of Pope Innocent III, who declared a Crusade against the Almohads. The Rif War (Spanish: Guerra del Rif) was an armed conflict fought from 1921 to 1926 between the occupying colonialists of Spain (joined by France in 1924) and the Berber tribes of the mountainous Rif region of northern Morocco.. Navarre, though attacked by Almanzor, remained intact. The cavalry used long double-edged swords and the infantry short, single-edged ones. While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. ", "Opinion | Vox and the Rise of the Extreme Right in Spain", "Far-right French presidential hopeful promises 'reconquest' at rally", "Libro del axedrez, dados e tablas [Folio 64R (croppped)]", "Actualit de la Chanson de Roland: Une pope populaire au programme d'agrgation", "Vox, la Reconquista y la salvacin de Espaa", "La persistencia del discurso nacionalcatlico sobre el Medievo peninsular en la historiografa espaola actual", 10.26754/ojs_historiografias/hrht.2016122367, "Por qu Vox rescata ahora el viejo concepto de 'Reconquista'? Lacking the means needed for wholesale conquest of large territories, his tactics consisted of raids in the border regions of Vardulia. many ships being wrecked by storms. By Matthew Shea. King Ordoo allied with Navarre against Abd-al-Rahman, but they were defeated in Valdejunquera in 920. Image credit: Wikimedia Commons [citation needed], Steel swords were the most common weapon. [citation needed], Nevertheless, all those deemed to be "New Christians" were repeatedly suspected of illegally continuing in secret to practice their religions various crimes against the Spanish state including continued practice of Islam or Judaism. The Spanish Inquisition was suppressed by Joseph Bonaparte in 1808, restored by Ferdinand VII in 1814, suppressed in 1820, restored in 1823, and finally suppressed permanently in 1834. Publisher's summary: Confraternities were the most common form of organized religious life in medieval and early modern Europe. In Toledo, a Castilian city already famous throughout Europe as a crossroads of Christian, Arab, and Jewish thought, Alfonso X established the Escuela de Traductores (School of Translators), an institution that made Arabic works available to the Christian West. By the end of the 10th century, Aragon, which then was just a county, was annexed by Navarre. Throughout its early history, the Navarrese kingdom engaged in frequent skirmishes with the Carolingian Empire, from which it maintained its independence, a key feature of its history until 1513. Spain under General Franco (1939-1975). Surrounded by enemies, taifa rulers sent a desperate appeal to the Berber chieftain Yusuf ibn Tashfin, leader of the Almoravids. Garca Fitz, Francisco. A Hundred Years of Strife in Portugal, 1826-1926. Spain, Portugal, and Sicily were part of the Arab world at its original conception, until the Reconquista and the Crusades brought them into the Western sphere of influence. [citation needed], In the late years of Al-Andalus, Castile had the might to conquer the remnants of the kingdom of Granada, but the kings preferred to wait and claim the tribute of the Muslim parias. They were usually referred to as the Spanish monarchs or the Catholic sovereigns. "The Reconquista revisited: mobilising medieval Iberian history in Spain, Portugal and beyond." [citation needed], During the 10th century and onwards, cities and towns gained more importance and power, as commerce reappeared and the population kept growing. Toledo, which was the former capital of the Visigoths, was a very important landmark, and the conquest made Alfonso renowned throughout the Christian world. Castile and Len were thus reunited, and the new sovereign at once embarked on a great series of campaigns to subdue Andalusia. Nonetheless, Denis of Portugal carried out a short war with Castile for possession of the towns of Serpa and Moura. 3738, sfn error: no target: CITEREFUllidtz2010 (. "Rejecting al-Andalus, exalting the Reconquista: historical memory in contemporary Spain. The Moors in Castile previously numbered "half a million within the realm". [citation needed], From the mid-13th century on, no more charters were granted, as the demographic pressure had disappeared and other means of re-population were created. James also signed the Treaty of Corbeil (1258), in which the French king renounced to any feudal claim over Catalonia. The history of Spanish enslavement of Africans began with Portuguese captains Anto Gonalves and Nuno Tristo in 1441. However, this "conquest" was conducted rather gradually, and mostly peacefully, during the course of several decades. Then, in 929, the Emir of Crdoba (Abd-ar-Rahman III), the leader of the Umayyad dynasty, declared himself Caliph, independent from the Abbasids in Baghdad. Learn History visually with Interactive 3D Maps, Timelines, Images, and Videos with HistoryMaps. Spain began to trade slaves in the 15th century and this trade reached its peak in the 16th century. What happened to Spain in the 1700s? Alfonso V finally regained control over his domains in 1002. Pilgrims from all over Europe opened a channel of communication between the isolated Asturias and the Carolingian lands and beyond, centuries later. [1] The beginning of the Reconquista is traditionally dated to the Battle of Covadonga (718 or 722), in which an Asturian army achieved the first Christian victory over the Arab-Berber forces of the Umayyad Caliphate since the beginning of the military invasion. [23] It thus became one of the key tenets of the historiographical discourse of National Catholicism, the mythological and ideological identity of the regime. After occupying the Balearics (1235), he captured Valencia (1238). [9] The concept gained further track in the 20th century during the Francoist dictatorship. [26][23][27][28][29], The same kind of propaganda was circulated by the Republicans, who wanted to portray their enemies as foreign invaders, especially given the prominence of the Army of Africa among Franco's troops, an army which was made up of native North African soldiers. The discourse was underpinned in its most traditional version by an avowed historical illegitimacy of Al-Andalus and the subsequent glorification of the Christian conquest. [citation needed], Medieval Christian armies mainly comprised two types of forces: the cavalry (mostly nobles, but including commoner knights from the 10th century on) and the infantry, or peones (peasants). The next century saw a number of. Norsemen, Flemish spearmen, Frankish knights, Moorish mounted archers (archers who travelled on horseback), and Berber light cavalry were the main types of mercenaries available and used in the conflict. 711 AD e. After this, Denis avoided war. [citation needed], Later on, Ferdinand II of Aragon, married Isabella of Castile, leading to a dynastic union which eventually gave birth to modern Spain, after the conquest of Upper Navarre (Navarre south of the Pyrenees) and the Emirate of Granada. In 711, North African Berber soldiers with some Arabs commanded by Tariq ibn Ziyad crossed the Strait of Gibraltar, engaging a Visigothic force led by King Roderic at the Battle of Guadalete (July 1926) in a moment of severe in-fighting and division across the Visigothic Kingdom of Hispania. An Umayyad emirate was established in Spain in the 8th century. Early in 1197, at the request of Sancho I, King of Portugal, Pope Celestine III declared a crusade against Alfonso IX and released his subjects from their responsibilities to the king, declaring that "the men of his realm shall be absolved from their fidelity and his dominion by authority of the apostolic see. granada . In 1502, Queen Isabella I declared that conversion to Catholicism was compulsory within the Kingdom of Castile. Sulayman seems to have punished the surviving Musa ibn-Nusayr, who very soon died during a pilgrimage in 716. In exchange Aragon relinquished all claims to other Moorish-held territory in the peninsula. [47], After the Umayyad conquest of the Iberian heartland of the Visigothic kingdom, the Muslims crossed the Pyrenees and gradually took control of Septimania, starting in 719 with the conquest of Narbonne through 725 when Carcassonne and Nmes were secured. The Spanish capture of Tripoli cost them some 300 men, while the inhabitants suffered between 3,000 and 5,000 killed and another 5,0006,000 carried off as slaves. Spain and Portugal were quarrelling over the newly found "uncivilized world" which would lead to the development of one of the biggest exchanges in the history of the world. For the next 80 years, the Kingdom of Len suffered civil wars, Moorish attack, internal intrigues and assassinations, and the partial independence of Galicia and Castile, thus delaying the reconquest and weakening the Christian forces. The last Visigothic king Ardo resisted them in Septimania, where he fended off the Berber-Arab armies until 720. The Spanish Inquisition was essentially a joint effort between the Catholic Church and the courts to suss out and persecute baptized members of the Church who didn't follow its teachings - or those who actively went against them. As a result, the town council was dependent on the monarch alone and, in turn, was required to provide auxilium aid or troops for their monarch. Throughout the colonial period, the missions Spain established would serve several objectives. the Visigoths in Spain life and culture in al-Andalus the Reconquista and the Christian Kingdoms. Uniquely in Europe, these horsemen comprised a militia cavalry force with no feudal links, being under the sole control of the king or the count of Castile because of fueros (charters) with the crown. Though the beginning of the Reconquista is traditionally dated to about 718, when the Christian Asturians opposed the Moors at the Battle of Covadonga, the impulse toward reconquest was expressed only sporadically through the first three centuries of Muslim hegemony. These states were small and, with the exception of Navarre, did not have the capacity for attacking the Muslims in the way that Asturias did, but their mountainous geography rendered them relatively safe from being conquered, and their borders remained stable for two centuries. Bones of St. James the great Vizier Almanzor ( al-Mansur, `` Reconquista. ; s start of Strife in Spain life and culture in al-Andalus -- the Arabic for. 'S grandson later became a puppet in the Reconquest the last Visigothic king Ardo resisted them in Septimania, he... Not frequent Sulayman seems to have punished the surviving Musa ibn-Nusayr, who soon! The new sovereign at once embarked on a great series of battles an! 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